Mainstreaming Biodiversity within Climate Change Adaptation: Review by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity

Introduction

Jaime Webbe, Programme Officer for Climate Change and Dry and Sub-humid Lands at Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) notes, “while national adaptation programmes of action and adaptation funds within various frameworks have begun to address biodiversity, planning tools for biodiversity conservation and sustainable use have yet to adequately take up the issue of climate change; As one solution, the ecosystem approach as a tool within the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) could achieve the effective integration of adaptation considerations within biodiversity planning and implementation of the CBD.”

The views expressed in this essay/article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Global Cities Institute. Readers should note that Global Cities Institute seeks a diversity of views and opinions on contentious topics in order to identify common ground.

Mainstreaming Biodiversity with Climate Change Adaptation: Review by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity

by Jaime Webbe

Climate change has already begun to affect the functioning, appearance, composition and structure of ecosystems. Over the past 100 years, the thickness of sea ice in the Arctic has decreased by 40% while total available water in the Niger, Lake Chad and Senegal basins has decreased by 40-60%¹.

Furthermore, the negative impacts of climate change on biodiversity are increasing across almost all ecosystem types. As a result of climate change, up to 88% of reefs in Southeast Asia may be lost over the next 30 years². In the Amazon Basin, more than 40% of plant species studied could face extinction as a result of changes in temperature and precipitation³.

Some species will naturally adapt to climate change. For example, some corals are more resilient to bleaching and, as such, will be less impacted by changes in sea temperatures and chemistry. Likewise, in the face of sea-level rise, mangroves can move inland while maintaining a functioning coastal ecosystem so long as the inland route is not blocked by development.

There are a number of species, however, which are unable to shift. The southern African succulent fauna, which has one of the highest rates of endemism, is unable to shift further south beyond the tip of Africa while species restricted to lakes or high mountains have no migration avenues to follow. Such species may require more active interventions in the face of climate change including, for example, ex situ conservation.

The Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, at its ninth meeting, notedthe need to take further action to integrate biodiversity into climate change adaptation and mitigation while also noting the potential impacts of climate change activities on efforts towards the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. These decisions reflect not only an opportunity to enhance the objectives of the CBD through climate change actions, but also the potential and realized threats facing the achievement of the CBD objectives as a result of climate change.

In order to establish a baseline from which such activities could move forward, the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity conducted an analysis of existing linkages between climate change and biodiversity. This analysis considers both the integration of biodiversity in adaptation programmes and the integration of climate change adaptation in biodiversity programmes.

1. Analysis of the Integration of Biodiversity within Climate Change Adaptation Plans and Programmes

1.1 National Adaptation Programmes of Action

Within National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), a number of countries have identified specific projects linking adaptation and biodiversity.

Indeed, an analysis of the 30 NAPAs available reveals that:

• 25 Parties mention adaptation projects related to biodiversity,⁴

• 24 Parties mention adaptation projects related to forestry, ⁵

• Ten Parties mention adaptation projects related to fisheries,⁶ and

• Four Parties mention adaptation projects related tourism⁷.

Moreover, 21 Parties⁸ identify the vulnerability of specific ecosystems or species. Of the 25 Parties linking adaptation and biodiversity, eight are small island developing States⁹.

Tanzania, for example, identified eight projects within its NAPA that have a direct or indirect link to biodiversity and ecosystem services including: catchment conservation and sustainable use, forest-fire prevention and wildlife extension services¹⁰.

The NAPA of the Republic of the Maldives contains a complete vulnerability assessment of coral reef biodiversity revealing that by 2010, mean April sea surface temperature will exceed the temperature at which corals become susceptible to bleaching. Activities within the NAPA to promote the adaptation of reef biodiversity include: the establishment of marine protected areas, the enforcement of the coral mining ban and enhanced capacity for sewage treatment¹¹.

The analysis of all NAPAs also revealed that, in areas where biodiversity is closely linked to livelihoods, governments are already prioritizing projects linking biodiversity and adaptation. In countries where livelihoods are more reliant upon managed systems however, such as the case of agriculture in Bangladesh, there are few or no adaptation projects that refer to biodiversity.

In addition, most of the projects linking adaptation and biodiversity refer to coastal biodiversity or agricultural biodiversity, while most of the projects linking adaptation to forestry refer to afforestation or agro-forestry.

1.2 Other Adaptation Plans and Programmes

Since NAPAs are only drafted by Least Developed Countries an analysis was also completed of other national adaptation projects that are integrating biodiversity. This analysis revealed two categories of projects (i) those that integrate biodiversity in recognition of the direct link between biodiversity and livelihoods and (ii) those that integrate biodiversity and ecosystem services so as to ensure the cost-effectiveness and sustainability of adaptation activities.

As an example of the first category, in Southern Africa, the tourism industry has been valued at US$3.6 billion in 2000, however, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change projects that between 25 and 40% of mammals in national parks will become endangered as a result of climate change. As such, the National Climate Change Response Strategy of the Government of South Africa includes interventions to protect plant, animal and marine biodiversity¹².

As another example, the Integrated National Adaptation Project in Colombia will implement adaptation measures including through ecosystem planning and management with the objective to maintain biodiversity assets for the benefit of biodiversity and biodiversity-based livelihoods¹³.

Within the second category of projects, the conservation or restoration of river floodplains in Europe, for example, has been employed as an important response to increasing flooding events or droughts¹⁴. Not only can it be more cost effective than traditional engineering responses but also provides substantial benefits in terms of fisheries, increased resilience and an improved aesthetic and cultural environment.

In Samoa, the replanting of mangroves is an integral part of a large restoration project to enhance food security and protect local communities from storm surges which are expected to increase as a result of climate change¹⁵. In Uruguay, the development and climate change strategy recognizes that natural resource management is a critical link in efforts to both adapt to and mitigate climate change¹⁶.

Such projects, however, tend to reflect the use value of biodiversity but do not necessarily include biodiversity that has either little use value or a non-quantifiable value.

One adaptation mechanism that does integrate all values of biodiversity, whether quantifiable or not, is the GEF Trust Fund Strategic Priority on Adaptation (SPA) which mandates that projects must have global environmental benefits. Some projects included in the initial allocation of US $50 million include the ‘Implementation of Pilot Adaptation Measures in Coastal Areas of Dominica, St. Lucia and St. Vincent & the Grenadines’ which includes measures for the stabilization of mangrove and coral reef ecosystems to increase their resilience to climate change¹⁷.

2. Analysis of the Integration of Climate Change within Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Use Plans and Programmes

2.1 National Biodiversity Strategy and Actions Plans

Article 6 of the CBD states that each Contracting Party shall, in accordance with its particular conditions and capabilities: ‘Develop national strategies, plans or programmes for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity...’¹⁸

A review of these National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans (NBSAPs) reveals that, of the 148 NBSAPs submitted by Parties:

• Eight Parties¹⁹ address biodiversity and climate change as a strategic objective with related actions

• Five Parties²⁰ address biodiversity and climate change as a strategic objective but haven't developed related actions

• Eleven Parties²¹ have developed actions to address biodiversity and climate change under strategic objectives dealing with research, monitoring, protected areas, forests, energy and transport sector, and carbon sequestration capacity

Perhaps the most startling finding of the review, however, is the fact that 124 Parties representing almost 84% of NBSAPs contain no strategic objectives or activities related to climate change adaptation.

2.2 Other Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Use Plans

A number of countries, recognizing the potentially significant impacts of climate change on species and ecosystems, have conducted studies and assessments and developed response measures to ensure that climate change does not limit their ability to achieve the objectives of the CBD.

Many studies and assessments currently focus on vulnerability. In the United Kingdom, for example, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) published: Climate Change and UK Nature Conservation: A Review of the Impact of Climate Change on UK Species and Habitat Conservation Policy. This study revealed that montane habitats, raised bogs, soft coastal habitats and chalk rivers are most sensitive to climate change. With regards to policy responses, the study suggests that Local Biodiversity Action Plans should be reviewed to ensure that climate change is taken into account²². Similar studies have been prepared in inter alia South Africa²³, Finland²⁴, New Zealand²⁵ and Australia²⁶.

A number of additional countries have linked climate change to the management of specific ecosystems. Canada, for example, completed a study on the impacts of sea level rise on coastal ecosystems²⁷. In the United States, an atlas on the impacts of climate change on tree species has been developed to identify risks and assist in adaptation planning²⁸.

With regards to specific response measures, Australia has one of the most comprehensive plans for adapting to climate change threats to biodiversity. This plan combines both scientific methods as well as stakeholder participation. The plan also calls for the government to provide information to land managers about adaptation options²⁹.

Specific studies, programmes and plans are, however, not always well integrated into other sector planning and strategies. Where efforts have been made to link biodiversity adaptation and vulnerability programmes to specific sectors, however, implementation has been fairly good. Where such efforts have not been undertaken, implementation has often fallen behind the initial scope or timeline.

3. Enhancing the Integration of Climate Change into Implementation of Activities towards the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity

In conducting the above analysis the Secretariat of the CBD identified a number of tools and examples on linking biodiversity and climate change adaptation. Below is an analysis of the rationale, methods and tools adopted by Parties in marine and coastal, forest and agricultural ecosystems.

The ecosystem approach is also presented as a possible tool to address the gap in the consideration of climate change adaptation within implementation of the CBD.

3.1 Biodiversity and climate change adaptation in marine and coastal ecosystems

1. Impacts of climate change on marine and coastal biodiversity

Climate change is projected to cause a decrease in many fish populations while ocean acidification may cause pH to decrease by as much as 0.5 units by 2100 causing severe die-offs in shellfish.

In addition, rising sea temperatures are predicted to shift fish habitats and may cause local extinctions of particular fish species included in aquaculture production. This is particularly true for species at the edges of current ranges, freshwater fish and diadromous species (e.g. salmon and sturgeon). Furthermore, within the next 30 to 50 years, coral bleaching could become an annual event in small island developing States.

2. Biodiversity, adaptation and livelihoods

Because of the importance of marine and coastal biodiversity for food and the protection of coastal communities and infrastructure, the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in these areas is an important component of livelihood adaptation to changing climatic conditions.

The coasts of Africa support marine biodiversity which provide up to 50% of protein requirements to some coastal communities supporting a quarter of Africa’s population. In Madagascar alone, fisheries represent no less than 3.5% of GDP.

In the United Kingdom, the value of marine biodiversity for food alone has been estimated at ₤ 513 million per year³⁰. In Sri Lanka, one square kilometer of coral reef has been estimated to prevent 2,000 cubic meters of coastal erosion annually. Reef fisheries are worth between $15,000 and US$150,000 per square kilometer a year.

In Malaysia, the value of mangroves for coastal protection is estimated at US$300,000 per kilometre of coast based on the cost of installing artificial coastal protection. Following the degradation of the reef around Malé in the Maldives, the cost of installing artificial breakwaters was US$10 million per kilometre³¹.

3. Methods and tools

Mobilizing biodiversity for climate change adaptation can be a cost-effective option, especially in developing countries. Integrated marine and coastal area management (IMCAM) has been specifically identified by marine and coastal experts and experts involved in the Nairobi work programme process as an appropriate method to link biodiversity conservation and sustainable use with climate change adaptation.

Adaptation programmes that consider biodiversity within marine and coastal ecosystems include:

• improving management of sewage discharge;

• the use of hooks to reduce by-catch;

• restoring degraded coastal ecosystems;

• establishing marine protected areas;

• enhancing monitoring programmes;

• identifying resilient species;

• developing pollution contingency plans;

• diversifying livelihoods in coastal communities; and

• economic valuation of marine and coastal resources.

As an example of implementation of such an approach, the Mekong Delta in Vietnam, following the draining and destruction of wetlands, integrated the rehabilitation of the hydrology and functions of the wetland forest system with a mixed cropping and forest product management system.

This approach built on and modified a model that divides the degraded wetlands into 10-hectare units: 7.5 hectares devoted to replanting native wetland species and 2.5 hectares allocated to agriculture³². The intact coastal wetlands, in addition to providing habitat and livelihoods, also act as a buffer against storm surges which are expected to become more frequent and intense as a result of climate change.

3.2 Biodiversity and climate change in forest ecosystems

1. Impacts of climate change on biodiversity

Forests have been fairly well monitored for the impacts of climate change. As a result, a number of changes have been observed, including: increased stomatal densities in temperate woodlands, community reorganization, poleward shifts in species ranges, changed seasonal patterns of growth and flowering, and the loss or reduction in productivity of certain forest systems.

Globally, predictions suggest that climate change will aggravate the adverse impacts of forest cover loss, thereby causing extensive forest die back and composition change. In some cases, though, these changes may occur gradually providing time for adaptation.

Increased air and surface soil temperatures are expected to cause significant shifts in forest species distribution, the expansion of forest pests, pathogens and invasive alien species, and changes in forest fire regimes. The boreal forests in Alaska, for example, are expected to experience a northward shift of 100 kilometers for every 1°C rise in mean annual temperatures.

Warming trends have already enhanced the spread of insect pests in forests, including in North America where earlier spring events have facilitated the proliferation of insects such as the mountain pine beetle. This has resulted in widespread mortality in many temperate forest stands.

Finally, changes in precipitation, in combination with increased temperatures, are expected to impact the frequency and extent of forest fires. Recent studies show that the frequency and intensity of these disturbances are already increasing. In the United States, the projected increase in burnt area could reach 50% while, in the Amazon, forest fire frequency is expected to increase by 60% for a 3°C temperature increase.

2. Biodiversity, adaptation and livelihoods

Many essential ecosystem goods and services for human well-being are only provided by resilient and intact forest ecosystems. Currently, remaining forests provide around 1.6 billion people with food, medicines, fuel and other basic necessities, and are the origin of about 5,000 different commercial products. Furthermore, about 60 million indigenous peoples and people in tribal groups are almost wholly dependent on forests³³.

Afforestation, reforestation and forest restoration are essential tools in the fight against desertification as more than three quarters of the world’s accessible freshwater comes from forested catchments. Finally, forests are home to an estimated two thirds of all terrestrial biodiversity.

3. Methods and tools

Adaptation programmes that consider biodiversity in forest ecosystems include:

• reducing fragmentation;

• establishing corridors;

• extending rotation cycles in production forests;

• replanting with better adapted tree species;

• adaptive fire management including maintaining natural fire regimes where possible;

• enhancing resilience of managed forests, by increasing the diversity of species, age, and spatial distribution;

• implementing soil conservation measures;

• reducing illegal logging;

• providing buffer zones;

• practicing low-intensity forestry;

• protecting primary forests; and

• identifying and protecting ‘functional’ groups of similar / ecologically important species.

As an example of the application of adaptation programmes that consider biodiversity in forest ecosystems, Canada developed its National Forest Strategy to enhance sustainable forest management. In response to threats to forest ecosystems from climate change, including the expansion of diseases and pest species, Canada applied the criteria for sustainable forest management to its forest management including: the conservation of biodiversity, maintenance of forest productivity, maintenance of forest ecosystem health, and conservation of soil and water resources. This was done in order to enhance resilience in the face of projected climate change impacts on forest ecosystems³⁴.

3.3 Biodiversity and climate change in agro-ecosystems

1. Impacts of climate change on biodiversity

A warming of 1–2°C may increase agricultural production in humid temperate regions but is expected to decrease yields in arid, semi-arid and tropical regions. Due to a lack of information, it is unclear what impact should be expected in tropical grasslands and rangelands. Warming greater than 3°C, however, has projected negative impacts on agricultural production in all regions. Increased air temperature also reduces productivity and conception rates and increases heat stress on livestock.

Increases in precipitation extremes are very likely in the major agricultural production areas in Southern and Eastern Asia, in East Australia and in Northern Europe. Such extremes will increase both drought and flood stresses on agricultural biodiversity. Climate change also increases risks from fires, diseases and pests.

Other impacts of climate change which are expected to impact agricultural biodiversity include: (i) decreased water supply from snowcaps; (ii) salt-water intrusions and loss of arable land in coastal areas; (iii) increased frequency of landfall tropical storms; and (iv) the remobilization of dunes.

2. Biodiversity, adaptation and livelihoods

In Africa, demand for food is expected to reach US$100 billion by 2015, double its level of 2000³⁵. At the same time, climate change is expected to lead to changing precipitation regimes which will increase water stress in sub-tropical regions including Southern Africa which is projected to lose 30% of its maize crop by 2030.

Adaptation linked to agricultural biodiversity, such as changing varieties and agro-forestry, can avoid 10-15% of the projected reductions in yield under changing climatic conditions.

3. Methods and tools

Adaptation programmes that consider biodiversity within agricultural ecosystems and grasslands include:

• conserving agricultural genetic resources,

• reducing other threats to agricultural biodiversity,

• restoring degraded land with native species,

• integrating land and water management,

• establishing disease control programmes for native livestock, and

• invasive species management planning.

In Maharashtra, India, such an approach was applied at the watershed level in response to projected increased frequency and intensity of droughts in arid agricultural ecosystems. Local communities in the area planted native trees and vegetation to stabilize waterways, developed management plans to allow for regeneration of degraded areas and devolved resource management decisions to the lowest level possible³⁶. This was done in order to ensure the continued provision of ecosystem services, especially water cycling, despite increased pressures on such services as a result of climate change.

3.4 The Ecosystem Approach³⁷

The ecosystem approach (also known as integrated land and water management, landscape management, etc.) is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in a fair and equitable manner.

The main principles of the ecosystem approach focus on capacity building; participation; information gathering and dissemination; research; comprehensive monitoring and evaluation; and governance. As such, advantages of the ecosystem approach include: stakeholder participation; consideration of both scientific and technical and traditional knowledge; and the achievement of balanced ecological, economic and social costs and benefits.

Since the ecosystem approach takes a broad perspective to management, it is an ideal methodology through which the multiple impacts from climate change, including on biodiversity, can be reflected in comprehensive and responsive adaptation planning.

A review of the application of the ecosystem approach conducted by the Convention on Biological Diversity revealed many opportunities to strengthen ongoing efforts. Such opportunities include: developing standards for application of the ecosystem approach; adopting simplified and improved marketing approaches to appeal to a wider audience; and capacity building at all levels by developing a strategic approach through enhanced partnerships.

Conclusion

More than 80% of all NAPAs contain elements that directly address biodiversity conservation or sustainable use. A number of additional national and regional adaptation programmes have been established considering biodiversity. These projects fall into two main categories (i) those that focus on enhancing the adaptive capacity of biodiversity and (ii) those that take advantage of the ecosystem services supported by biodiversity in order to adapt to impacts of climate change on livelihoods.

Addressing climate change adaptation within implementation of the CBD has, however, not yet fully responded to the emerging science regarding risk and vulnerability with fewer than 16% of NBSAPs responding to the impacts of climate change. In fact, thus far, Parties, when they do address climate change in implementing the CBD, have focused on vulnerability assessments or management plans limited to a single ecosystem or species.

The decisions taken at the ninth meeting of the Conference of the Parties should lead to an enhancement of the integration of adaptation within implementation of the programmes of work of the Convention. In order to facilitate this, (1) NBSAPs should be revised to better reflect the impacts of climate change, (2) specific methods and tools should be integrated into implementation of the programmes of work of the Convention and (3) the application of the ecosystem approach should be expanded and adapted to changing climatic conditions.

Information about the author

Jaime Webbe was born in Jersey, UK. She was trained as a geographer at McGill University in Montreal, Canada. Jaime is currently working as programme officer for climate change and dry and sub-humid lands within the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. As such, she is responsible for linking the Secretariat’s work on drylands and climate change with the objectives and activities of the other Rio Conventions (the Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention to Combat Desertification). She is also the focal point for the Nairobi work programme on impacts, vulnerability and adaptation to climate change. Jaime’s prior work includes protected areas management with the government of British Columbia and sustainable land management in sub-Saharan Africa with a number of international organizations including the World Bank and the International Fund for Agricultural Development. E-mail: jaime.webbe@cbd.int

Endnotes

1 Climate Change 2001: Third Assessment Report. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001

2 Coastal Systems and Continental Margins: Asia-Pacific Coasts and Their Management States of Environment. Nobuo Mimura, 2008

3 Extinction risk from climate change. C.D.Thomas et al., 2004, Nature, v. 427, p. 145-148

4 Bangladesh, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Cape Verde, Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinée, Guinea Bissau, Haiti, Kiribati, Lesotho, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Democratic Republic of Congo, Samoa, Sudan, Tuvalu, Uganda and Zambia.

5 Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Cape Verde, Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinée, Guinea Bissau, Haiti, Lesotho, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, Vanuatu, and Zambia.

6 Bangladesh, Benin, Cambodia, Comoros, Guinée, Guinea Bissau, Mauritania, Sao Tome and Principe, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.

7 Haiti, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, and Vanuatu.

8 Bangladesh, Benin, Bhutan, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Guinée, Haiti, Kiribati, Lesotho, Malawi, Rwanda, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Tanzania, Tuvalu, Uganda, Vanuatu, and Zambia

9 Cape Verde, Comoros, Haiti, Kiribati, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu

10 National Adaptation Programme of Action for Tanzania. Division of Environment, 2006

11 National Adaptation Plan of Action: Republic of Maldives. Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water, 2006

12 A National Climate Change Response Strategy for South Africa. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 2004

13 Colombia: Integrated National Adaptation Program. The World Bank Group, 2006

14 European Water Directive. European Commission, 2000. [868 Kb, PDF]

15 Community Based Adaptation: Samoa. UNDP, 2008. 

16 Development and Climate Change in Uruguay: Focus on Coastal Zones, Agriculture and Forestry. OECD, 2004

17 Presentation on Biodiversity and Climate Change: GEF Funding for Adaptation to Climate Change. Richard Hosier, GEF Secretariat June 3, 2008

18 http://www.cbd.int/convention/articles.shtml?a=cbd-06

19 Barbados, Cambodia, Czech Republic, Dominica, European Community, Namibia, Peru, South Africa

20 Canada, Nigeria, Portugal, Slovakia, Sweden

21 Belgium, Chile, Cuba, Guatemala, Lithuania, Micronesia, Spain, Tajikistan, United Kingdom, Venezuela, Yemen

22 Climate Change and UK Nature Conservation: A Review of the Impact of Climate Change on UK Species and Habitat Conservation Policy.J. E. Hossell, et al, 2000

23 Developing regional and species-level assessments of climate change impacts on biodiversity in the Cape Floristic Region. G.F. Midgley et al, 2007

24 A preliminary examination of adaptation to climate change in Finland. Carter, T. & Kankaanpää, S. for the Finnish Environment Institute, 2003

25 Linkages Between Climate Change and Biodiversity in New Zealand. Ministry for the Environment, 2001

26 Climate change impacts on biodiversity in Australia: Outcomes of a workshop sponsored by the Biological Diversity Advisory Committee, 1-2 October 2002. Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2003

27 Impacts of Sea Level Rise and Climate Change on the Coastal Zone of Southeastern New Brunswick. Environment Canada, 2006

28 Iverson, L. R., A. M. Prasad, B. J. Hale, and E. K. Sutherland. 1999. An atlas of current and potential future distributions of common trees of the eastern United States. General Technical Report NE-265. Northeastern Research Station, USDA Forest Service.

29 National Biodiversity and Climate Chance Action Plan of Australia: 2004-2007. Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2004

30 Marine Biodiversity: An economic valuation, Nicola Beaumont, Michael Townsend, Stephen Mangi and Melanie C. Austen, UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs [792 Kb, PDF]

31 In the Front Line: Shoreline Protection and other Ecosystem Services from Mangroves and Coral Reefs. United Nations Environment Programme, 2006

32 Integrated Marine and Coastal Area Management Approaches for Implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity. Convention on Biological Diversity, 2004

33 Forest Biodiversity. Convention on Biological Diversity, 2008

34 Growth and dieback of Apsen forests in northwestern Alberta, Canada in relation to climate and insects E.H. Hogget al. 2002, Canadian Journal of Forest Research, v. 32, p. 823-832

35 Rising Food Prices Spell Hunger for Millions Across Africa, World Bank, 2008

36 Watershed Management: A Sustainable Strategy for Augmenting Water Resources and Mitigating Climate Changes, Watershed Organisation Trust, 2003

37 Ecosystem Approach, Convention on Biological Diversity, 2006. 

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